Pakistan Journal of Professional Psychology: Research & Practice

2006, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-9

Psychosocial Correlates of Speech-Language Impairment in the Context of

Bilingual Learning Environment in a Multi Cultural Setting

Aman Ullah Khan

Language impairment is a major social and health problem. Most of the speech problems are the result

of psychosocial correlates in cross-cultural / cross-linguistic perspectives. Hypotheses were

formulated relevant to pro-active mother-child verbal transaction, bilingual families, medium of

instruction, and religious institutions (madressahs). Research entailed a questionnaire administered on

speech-language disorders at the educational institutions / and OPD referrals, diagnosed as speech-

language disorders, non-organic in Karachi SouthWest District. The data so collected were subjected

to chi-square testing. In terms of the stated objectives, overall results of the research study supported

two of the hypotheses pertaining to proactive mother-child verbal transaction, and madressah

education (religious institution / school), whereas the other hypotheses remained deficient of the

required support for the hypothesized variables like mother-father tongue compatibility i.e.

monolingual families and medium of instruction.

development of faulty speech-language faculty in a

While speech-language impairment is considered

child in various research studies. In the proactive

a major social and health problem, it is quite difficult

mother-child relationship, the main focus is on the

to define the impairment solely and simply with

early social environment which is critical for language

reference to the attributes of a person's speech. For

development and that in infancy this environment is

most practical purposes, speech-language pathology

provided largely by a mother or mother substitute who

may be defined as speech defects with features of

feels affection for the child (Robert & Glucksberg,

speech that tend to create personal problems that are

1977). Proactive verbal transaction may be defined as

handicapping or potentially handicapping

an active participation in verbal exchange of

interpersonal relationships (Bloodstein, 1984).

utterances between mother / caregiver and child within

Speech-language disorders may be classified into four

a social environment, duly marked with love, care, and

main categories: stuttering (fluency) / cluttering

compassion (Robert & Glucksberg, 1977). With

disorders, disorders of articulation, voice disorders,

reference to this context, maternal deprivation called

and language disorders (Evelyn & Rees, 1972).

hospitalism is another important phenomenon and is

Various studies have established the fact that

defined as either separation from the mother or

“functional” and “organic” factors tend to interact in

inadequate maternal care resulting in retarded growth,

complex ways to determine the quality of any

increased susceptibility to disease, higher infant

communication (John, 1976). The major sources of

mortality, and a delay in general maturation including

organic disorders are: structural discords, neurological

the acquisition of language. The symptoms of

disorder, auditory disorders, endocrinological

hospitalism may also occur at home when an infant

disorders (cretinism), etc. On the other hand,

receives insufficient maternal care (Robert &

functional disorders of speech may be due to either

Glucksberg, 1977).

faulty learning (a disorder of learning) or faulty

Bilingualism is another important area that has

motivation, i.e. heightened drive states such as anxiety

been viewed with concern by some of the research

or other motivation that conflict with normal speech

studies carried out in the educational, and socio-

which account for 70-80% of speech language

cultural perspective. A number of studies (Hakuta &

pathology (Cornett, & Chabon, 1988).

Various

Garcia, 1989; Lambert & Peal, 1972; Lindholm, 1991)

psychological theories attempt to explain the

have suggested that bilingual students actually have an

dynamics of speech language pathology in the light of

advantage over monolinguals . For example, speakers

sociological conditions and their impact on the mind

of two languages show more cognitive flexibility.

resulting into the undesirable symptomatology.

They have more linguistic possibilities available for

Proactive mother-child relationship is one of the

containing situations they encounter because of their

important areas considered relevant to the

multiple-language abilities (Lindholm, 1991). In turn,

2

AMAN ULLAH KHAN

this permits them to solve problems with greater

development of speech-language pathology in the

creativity. On the contrary, Mehdi (2002) has

educational system of Pakistan. According to Abbas

maintained that there is always a possibility that

(2003) the educational system in Pakistan

children exposed to two different languages might

encompasses Urdu and English medium of instruction

experience speech delay if their linguistic exposure is

parallel to madressah system that is mainly

unevenly distributed. When that happens, a young

characterized by Arabic and 'Dini Ulum' (religious

child can experience hesitation and confusion,

teachings) taught in highly stressful environmental

especially when it comes to communicating in the

conditions at some of the religious institutions

language to which he or she has been inadequately

(madressahs). The concept of bilingualism /

exposed. To prevent this from happening, Mehdi

multilingualism has been critically examined in the

(2002) suggests that one parent should speak the

perspective of fear and stress and various speech

native language with the child while the other the

disorders.

second language. Then children would be able to

In Pakistan, there is a strong need to ascertain

associate each parent with a different sound and

incidence of speech-language impairment. Amongst

language pattern .

the cases come for help, many are not diagnosed with

In the context of bilingualism / multilingualism

speech impairment and go unnoticed because of low

vis-à-vis medium of instruction in Pakistani school

awareness. These cases otherwise can be managed,

system, according to Mansoor (2001) medium of

and hence are a source of genuine concern (Mehdi,

instruction is one of the most decisive factors in school

2002). This study has been carried out to explore the

achievement of the children. Bilingualism by

incidence of speech- language pathology,

definition implies a learning process where at least two

classification, etiological factors and its psychosocial

languages are involved. Pakistani students have a

correlates in particular reference to cross-cultural and

multilingual and a multicultural background where

cross-linguistic perspective. The study, therefore, aims

Urdu is the mother tongue of only 7 percent of the

at a careful investigation of finding out various

population and a host of regional languages such as

environmental (non-organic) factors responsible for

Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Seraiki, Gujrati,

speech-language pathology in South/ West district,

Memon / Kachi, Hindko, and Brohi along with their

Karachi.

numerous dialects are spoken by the majority. The

Based on the findings of the currently available

methods of instruction adopted: Urdu, English,

literature, certain hypotheses were formulated to

Arabic, and any other local language are generally

ascertain the degree of relationship between the

perceived as posing a threat to the regional learners

psycho-social variables (correlates) and speech-

having their mother tongue different from that of the

language pathology as follows:

prevalent medium of instruction at their educational

Hypothesis 1: Pro-active mother-child verbal

institution (Mansoor, 2001). In speech-language

transaction is positively related with speech-language

developmental perspective, the dichotomy may result

development.

in various types of disorders. Thus, it calls for a

Hypothesis 2: Monolingual families (mother-

scientific study of the factors working in bilingualism /

father tongue compatibility) as compared to bilingual

multilingualism vis-à-vis medium of instructions in

families are positively related to speech-language

our school system.

development.

According to Rehman (2003) the situation in some

Hypothesis 3: Incompatibility of mother tongue

areas in both urban and rural parallel educational

vis-à-vis medium of instruction in the educational

institutions of 'madressah' are functioning with a

institution is related to speech-language pathology.

mixed medium of instruction i.e. Arabic and Urdu.

Hypothesis 4: Children studying at religious

This further compounds the situation. In addition,

institutions ( madressahs) display greater

English and Urdu are taught till the Intermediate

susceptibility to speech-language pathology.

(Class-12) or Graduation (Class-14) as compulsory

subjects. All the educational policies underscore the

Method

importance of mother tongue on education at the

primary level, except in Sindh, where, Sindhi language

Sample

is also an alternate medium of instruction till High

School (Rehman, 2003). Rahman has carried out an in-

For the purpose of this study, the probability

depth analysis of the impact of bilingualism /

sampling procedures were adopted (Guilford, 1956).

multilingualism (Urdu, English and Arabic) in the

A list of registered educational institutions established

SPEECH-LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

3

in Karachi South-West District was procured by the

concomitants of prolongations or repetitions of short

researcher from the Department of Education, Sindh.

speech segments are described. Scoring of responses

A combined sample of around 100 participants was

ranged from 0 to 45. The reliability of .84 and validity

drawn from the educational institutions as well as

of .89 qualify the instrument for clinical and research

through referrals from PAF Masroor Hospital / Aero-

purposes. The SSI Test Form is divided into four major

Medical Institute, Psychiatric Centres and Clinics.

areas: frequency, duration, physical concomitants, and

The actual sample, however consists of 93 cases of

severity conversion tables for children and adults.

speech-language disorder after ruling out physical and

Stimulus material was used to elicit conversation from

organic causes of speech-language pathology such as

the non-reader and to provide reading materials for the

mental retardation, autism, head injuries, cleft palate,

reader. The severity of a person's stuttering can be

aphasia, larynxgectomy etc. The analyses of the data

ascertained by comparing his/her scores to the

was carried out on 93 participants with speech-

normative data presented in the form of percentiles

language pathology.

from very mild to very severe categories. A single

numerical score of the SSI provides an assessment of

Measures

severity and a reference point for measuring clinical

changes in language fluency.

Questionnaire for demographic information and

speech-language pathology information:

Procedure

The researcher designed a questionnaire

comprising of 60 items. The questionnaire included

After seeking consent from the participants and

information regarding the participant, his/her family

explaining the purpose of the research, the

and speech disorder, e.g. name, age, sex, residential

questionnaire regarding demographic, family and

address, type of educational institutions, medium of

illness information was individually administered to

instructions, academic progress at the school, parents

each of the respondent and his/her family members.

availability at home (number of hours), parents'

marital an consanguinity status, occupation, monthly

The investigator examined the tongue movement,

income, family extension (joint/nuclear), mother-

lip movement and oral structure deviation anomalies

tongue compatibility (bilingual / multilingual), order

in the participants. He also asked participants about

of birth, history of physical / psychiatric illness and

speech pathology, etc.

physical causes of symptoms. After ruling out the

physical basis of symptoms, diagnostic scales were

Stuttering Severity Instrument (SSI):

used to determine the severity, i.e. very mild, mild,

moderate, severe, and very severe. To ascertain the

To ascertain the cases of stuttering disorders, SSI

cases for stuttering disorders, SSI diagnostic scale was

diagnostic scale was administered. The SSI attempts

then administered.

to meet the criteria of simplicity, objectivity, and

sensitivity of fluency changes of clinical significance.

Results

It is reliable, valid and usable with children and adults.

The frequency, duration and associated physical

The results are presented in the following Tables.

Table 1

Distributions of the sample by overall diagnosis of the speech- language disorders (N = 93)

Sr. No

Overall Diagnoses

Sample Code

Frequency

Percentage

1

Very Mild

A

11

11.82

2

Mild

B

25

26.90

3

Moderate

C

24

25.80

4

Severe

D

18

19.35

5

Very Severe

E

15

16.12

Almost half the cases fall into mild to moderate categories

4

AMAN ULLAH KHAN

Table 2

Distribution of the sample with age at the time of diagnosis, the duration of speech-language disorder,

medium of instruction & types of institution.

Sr. No

Age at Diagnosis

Sample Code

f

%

1

Less than 6 years

A

34

36.56

2

6 to 10 years

B

45

48.38

3

11 to 15 years

C

14

15.06

Duration of the Disorder

1

Less than 3 years

A

9

9.70

2

3 to 5 years

B

52

55.90

3

6 to 8 years

C

28

30.10

4

9 to 11 years

D

4

4.30

Sr. No

Medium of Instructions

1

English

A

07

7.3

2

Urdu + English

B

12

13.00

3

Urdu

C

51

55.00

4

Arabic + Urdu

D

23

24.70

Types of Institution

1

Public School (HS)

A

07

7.50

2

Public School (NS)

B

63

67.75

3

Madressah (RS)

C

23

24.65

Table 2 shows that most diagnoses were made

education in an Urdu medium school and almost

before the age of 11, most participants with speech

two-third of the sample was from the Public normal

language pathology were having the disorder from

schools.

3-5 years, almost half the participants received

SPEECH-LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

5

Table 3

Distribution of the sample by mother-tongue of the respondents' mothers

Sr. No

Mother-tongue (Mothers)

Sample Code

f

%

1

Urdu

B

21

22.57

2

Sindhi

C

22

23.65

3

Balochi

D

4

4.30

4

Punjabi

E

25

26.88

5

Makrani

G

3

3.23

6

Kachi / Memon

J

10

10.75

7

Pashto

N

4

4.30

8

Hindko

O

4

4.30

Table 3 shows that Urdu, Sindhi and Punjabi were

the most frequently spoken languages at home.

Table 4

Relationship between the mother-child verbal transactions and speech-language pathology: (df = 4)

Grades on Speech Language Pathology Assessment Scale

Mother-child

Very

Very

Transactions

Chi-square

mild

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Severe

High Average

35.7 (5/14)

21.42 (3/14)

21.42 (3/14)

14.30 (2/14)

7.15 (1/14)

Average

8.70 (6/69)

27.50 (19/69) 29 (20/69)

21.75 (15/69) 13.5 (9/69)

19.17*

Low Average

0 (0/10)

30 (3/10)

10 (1/10)

10 (1/10)

50 (5/10)

* = p < .05

In Table 4 analysis of chi-sqaure shows a

proactive mother-child verbal transaction for

significant difference in result pertaining to

speech-language development.

Table 5

Relationship between monolingual / bilingual families and speech-language pathology: (df=4)

Mother-Father

Grades on Speech Language Pathology Assessment Scale

Compatibility

Very

Very

(Mother Tongue)

Chi-square

mild

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Severe

Compatible

11.42 (8/10) 25.70 (18/10) 24.27 (17/10) 21.42 (15/10) 17.13 (12/10)

1.19

Incompatible

13.04 (3/23) 30.42 (7/23)

30.42 (7/23)

13.04 (3/23)

13.04 (3/23)

(n.s)

n.s = non-significant

The results in T able 5 shows no significant

families with regard to speech-language pathology.

difference between monolingual and bilingual

6

AMAN ULLAH KHAN

Table 6

Relationship between the mother-tongue (MT) compatibility with medium of instruction (MOI) and

speech-language pathology (df = 4)

MT /

Grades on Speech Language Pathology Assessment Scale

MOI

Very

Very

Compatibility

C hi-square

mild

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Severe

Compatible

25 (4/16)

12.5 (2/16)

37.5 (6/16)

18.75 (3/16)

6.25 (1/16)

(B) vs (b)

Low compatibility 7.14 (5/70)

31.42 (22/70) 22.8 (16/70)

20 (14/70)

18.57 (13/70) 9.99*

(BCDEGHI)

vs (ab+jb)

Very low

28.57 (2/7)

14.28 (1/7)

28.5 (2/7)

14.28 (1/7)

14.28 (1/7)

compatibility

(BCEG) vs (a)

Note: Mother tongue = MT, A = English, B = Urdu, C = Sindhi, D = Balochi E = Punjabi, G = Makrani, F = Katchi/Memon

N = Pashto, O = Hindko, J = Arabic. Medium of instructions = MOI, a = English (MOI), b = Urdu (MOI),

ab = English & Urdu (combined MOI), j = Urdu & Arabic (MOI)

* = p < .05

The Chi-square analysis shows a significant effect

instruction and speech-language pathology.

of mother-tongue compatibility with medium of

Table 7

Relationship between the education at the religious institution (Madressah) and speech-language

pathology: (df = 4)

Grades on Speech Language Pathology Assessment Scale

Educational

Very

Very

Chi-square

Institutions

mild

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Severe

Liberal

28.57 (2/7)

14.28 (1/7)

28.57 (2/7)

14.28 (1/7)

14.28 (1/7)

Educational

Institutions

Normal

14.28 (9/63) 31.75 (20/63) 28.57 (18/63) 17.46 (11/63) 7.93 (5/63)

18.14*

Institutions

(Public/Private)

Religious

0 (0/23)

17.39 (4/23)

17.39 (4/23)

26.08 (6/23)

39.13 (9/23)

Institutions

(Madressah)

* = p < .05

The Chi-square results in Table 7 shows a

institutions with speech-language pathology.

significant effect of education in religious

SPEECH-LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

7

observed that speakers having capability of expressing

Discussion

themselves in two or more languages demonstrate

greater jumpstart in situational adaptability. The

In terms of the stated objectives, overall

combinations and permutations of words / vocabulary

results of the present study supported two of the

that they usually possess provide them with a wider

hypotheses pertaining to proactive mother-child

repertoire of linguistic possibilities for dealing with

verbal transactions, and madressahs' education, while

situations they encounter because of their multiple-

the other hypotheses remained deficient of the

language abilities. Also, this allows them to handle

required support for the hypothesized variables, like

situations with greater innovation and versatility

mother-father tongue compatibility (monolingual

(Lindholm, 1991). Mehdi (2002) however, has

families) and medium of instruction.

maintained that there was always the possibility that

In the context of psychological correlates, the

children exposed to two different languages might

has,present research study has attempted to develop an

experience speech delay if their linguistic exposure is

important area pertaining to proactive mother-child

unevenly distributed. To support this conjecture she

verbal transactions. The concept of verbal transactions

further explains that a young child can experience

implies that the early social environment is critical for

hesitation and confusion, especially when it comes to

language development (Robert & Glucksberg, 1977).

communicating in the language to which he or she has

The underlying inference is that in order to develop

been inadequately exposed. In order to prevent this

normal language, the child must have an emotionally

from happening, she suggested that children should be

satisfying relationship with the mother / mother figure

provided with a proactive environment, wherein they

or mother substitute (Bloodstein, 1984). Any denial or

can develop association with each of the parents

deprivation of this relationship may cause detrimental

speaking a different dialect and language pattern. This

effects on the normal language development of the

would necessitate on an environment where one parent

child. The most clear-cut example of psychosocial

would speak the native language with the child while

deprivation is physical isolation of a child from all

the other the second language (Mehdi, 2002).

social contacts, more commonly referred to as

The hypotheses in the present research did not

maternal deprivation. Studies have shown that its

uphold the assertion that the mother-tongue

effects on early development are far-reaching. They

incompatibility with the medium of instructions

include retarded growth, increased susceptibility to

(MOI) was related to speech-language pathology.

disease, higher infant mortality, and delay in general

Medium of instructions vis-à-vis bilingualism has

maturation, which includes the acquisition of

always been considered as one of the decisive factors

language (Robert & Glucksberg, 1977). Analysis of

in school achievement of the children and possibly

the results of the present study duly support the

speech language pathology. It is generally expected

relationship between proactive mother-child verbal

that children exposed to two different languages might

transactions and speech language development. It can

experience speech delay if their linguistic exposure is

safely be assumed that children with developmental

unevenly distributed (Mehdi, 2002). Apprehensions

language difficulties tend to reveal a few speech-

have been vocalized that the medium of instruction

language difficulties, such as late onset of language,

which is adopted (Urdu, English or Arabic) poses a

restricted use and comprehension of words, limited

threat to the regional learners having their mother

length of their utterances, and failure to grasp

tongue different from that of the prevalent medium of

grammatical rules needed to produce and understand

instruction at their educational institution (Mansoor,

language at a level appropriate to age.

2001). In the present research study, it was claimed

The research hypothesis stating that the

that monolingualism was positively related to speech-

mother-father tongue compatibility (monolingual

language development. In other words, the test results

families) was positively related to speech-language

supported the null hypothesis that claimed

development as compared to bilingual families, was

incompatibility of mother-tongue vis-à-vis medium of

not supported. The inference may therefore lead to the

instruction which was not positively related to speech

conclusion that there is no significant difference

language pathology. However, there is much evidence

between monolingual and bilingual families with

to suggest that children who are bilingual are not at an

regard to speech-language development (see Table 8).

intellectual disadvantage as compared to children who

However many studies have suggested that bilingual

are monolinguals. To support this further, there has

students may have an edge over students who are

been a growing body of research that suggests that

monolinguals (Hakuta and Garcia, 1989;Lambert &

people who speak more than one language may well

Peal, 1989; Lindholm, 1991). Generally, it has been

have some cognitive advantages over monolinguals

8

AMAN ULLAH KHAN

(Lindholm, 1991). In the perspective of bilingual /

indoctrinated in a 'Munazra' style (debate), loaded with

cross-linguistic and cross-cultural impact on the

emotive tone; more rhetoric and less substantive. The

communication disorders, some important studies

critics are of strong conviction that unnecessary and

have been carried out by Hakuta & Garcia (1989),

excessive scolding and pounding of students in

Lambert and Peal (1972) and Lindholm (1991). These

madressah has induced a feeling of worthlessness

studies suggests that bilingual students actually have

among students and shaken their self-confidence.

an advantage over students who speak just one

Moreover, critics allegedly blamed madressah for

language. For example, speakers of two languages

indulgence in ever increasing incidence of

show more cognitive flexibility. They have more

homosexuality. (Abbas, 2003). Due to strong hold and

linguistic possibilities available for dealing with

authoritarian attitude of some of the religious teachers,

situations they encounter because of their multiple

a child studying in the madressah may develop anxiety,

language abilities. In turn, this permits them to solve

tension and physiological abnormalities. His / her

problems with greater creativity (Lambert & Peal,

emotional, physical, social and psychological

1972). Bilingual students are also better aware of the

development is arrested due to various types of anxiety,

rules of language and they may understand linguistic

tension, depression and aggression which in a way may

concepts more readily (Hakuta & Garcia, 1989).

help explain the adverse effects on the speech-language

In the context of existing parallel education

development of the students studying at these

system in Pakistan, which includes both Urdu and

madressah (Shahid, 1992).

English Medium of instruction and the madressah

The conclusion as to the susceptibility of

educational system, which includes Arabic and Urdu

children to speech-language disorders in view of the

languages. The hypothesis seeking relationship

environmental conditions that exist in our madressah

between the children studying at the religious

system needs a cautious approach with due skepticism.

institutions (madressahs) and susceptibility to speech-

Ironically, the environmental conditions, that have

language pathology provides important indicators on

been cited for being responsible for speech disorders at

the environmental conditions that exist in these

madressahs, are also prevalent in Urdu / English

educational systems. This suggests what remedial

Medium Schools, though with varying degrees. While

measures may be taken to overcome the delays in

cognizant of the environmental conditions that are

speech-language development. The data collected,

present in both the parallel systems, labeling the

however, shows that the children studying at the

madressah only for the negative outcome would be an

religious institutions (madressahs) display greater

oversimplification of the fact. The supporting data in

susceptibility to speech-language pathology. In the

this study, therefore, needs a more detailed scrutiny

perspective of educational system prevalent in

through subsequent researches in speech-language

Pakistan, the hypothesis stating that children studying

pathology with larger sample size, to ascertain the

at the religious institutions (madressahs) do not display

validity of this assertion. The future research in this

greater susceptibility to speech-language pathology is

area may involve cohort studies, so that the exact

of utmost importance.

contours along with the complexities of the speech-

Educational system in Pakistan is plagued with

language pathology could be ascertained for better

a number of dichotomies like out-dated curriculum,

prognosis.

faulty methodology, defective examination system,

low budgets, etc (Abbas, 2003). Of all these, parallel

References

Urdu / English medium schools (medium of

instructions) and the madressahs system mainly

Abbas, Y. (2003, January 4) . Spare the road please and

characterized by Arabic and 'Dini Ulum' (religious

help the child. Dawn , p. 4.

knowledge) have recently caught attention of

government authorities and the intelligentsia. While

Allen, L. E. (1960). Experimental design in

the Urdu / English medium institutions have

psychological research (3rd ed). USA: University

government prescribed syllabus, the madrassahs have

Press, Seattle Washington.

'Dars-i-Nizami' taught by 'Maulvis' (religious teachers

/ scholars; the equivalent of priests in religious

Bloodstein, O. (1984). Speech pathology : An

seminaries) (Rehman, 2003). Generally, critics of

introduction. USA: Houghton Miffilin company.

madressahs are of view that the method of teaching at

these seminaries is characterized with a typical

Cornett, S. C. , & Chabon, S. S. (1988) The clinical

harassment, fear of authority (Maulvis) and strict

practice of speech language pathology . USA: Merrill

discipline. Some of them want the students to be

Publishing Co.

SPEECH-LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

9

Evelyn, P. , & Rees, N. S. (1972) . Disorders of

Lindholm, K. J. (1991) Two-way bilingual/immersion

articulation: Some clinical applications of distinctive

education: Theory, conceptual issue, and pedagogical

feature theory. Journal of Speech and Hearing

implications. In R. V. Pedilla & A. Benavides (Eds.),

Disorders, 37, 451-461.

Critical Perspectives on bilingual education research .

Tempe, USA: Bilingual Review Press .

Glyndon, D. R. (1984) . Stuttering severity instrument

(SSI) for children and adults . (Rev. ed). USA: CC

Mansoor, S. (2001, October 14) Bilingual education:

Publications Inc.

The best approach . Dawn , p 3.

Guilford, J. P. (1956) . Fundamental statistics in

Mehdi, Z. (2002, September 1) Language acquisition

psychology and education . ( 3rd

ed.). New York:

in children. Dawn , p 4.

McGraw-Hill.

Rehman, T. (2003, January 12), The education of

Hakuta, K., & Garcia, E. E. (1989) Bilingualism and

maulvis. Dawn , p 8.

education. American Psychologist . USA.

Robert, M. K., & Glucksberg. (1977). Social and

John, D. (1976). Children's illocutionary acts in

nonsocial speech . Scientific American , 107.

discourse relations: comprehension and production.

New York: Roy Freedle Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .

Shahid, S. M. (1992). Child under stress in developing

countries, seminar article at 8th All Pakistan

Lambert, W. E., & Peal, E. (1972). The relation of

Psychological Conference, Lahore, Pakistan.

bilingualism to intelligence. In A. S. Dil (Ed.).

Language, psychology and culture . Stanford: Stanford

University Press .