Pakistan Journal of Professional Psychology: Research & Practice

2006, Vol. 1, No. 1, 25-33

Irrational Beliefs as Predictors of Depressive Symptoms

Among Urban Adolescents of Lahore, Pakistan

Nosheen K. Rahman

Centre for Clinical Psychology

Masha M. Ahmed

Kinnaired College,

irrational beliefs and Beck Depression Inventory-II to measure the degree of depressive

symptoms. In addition, Demographic Questionnaire was given to take background

information from them. Self Report Questionnaire was given to take the feed back of the

Coefficient of Correlation and Multiple Regression Analyses. The results supported the

hypotheses that irrational beliefs are important indicators to predict depressive symptoms

among male and female adolescents in Lahore, Pakistan. Preventive educational programs

the importance of rational beliefs in maintaining adequate mental health.

Depression is generally a mood state Depression is one of the most frequently occurring

60 percent of physical diseases in the total population necessitating no therapeutic intervention (Lefkowitz

are reported to be due to mental illnesses, out of which & Burton, 1978; Lapouse, 1966; Werry & Quay,

15 to 20 percent are due to depression only 1971). This has had the effect of limiting research in

estimates of adolescent depression in the West indicate ology. In the early '80s, the results of clinical reports

that 25 to 40 percent of the adolescent girls report and epidemiological studies reflecting high rates of

depressive features, whereas estimates for boys are 15 depression and suicide in the adolescent population,

to 20 percent (Santrock, 1998). A four decade study by and the publication of the DSM-III in which it was

George (as cited in Maltz & Sommer, 2000) indicated recognized that adult criteria could be used to diagnose

that those individuals who had the most pessimistic depressive disorders in children and adolescents,

National Mental Health Association, 2001). Seligman recognizing

could

(as cited in Ellis & Bernard, 1985) noted that ratio influence the phenomenology of that disorder at

between male and female depression may be as high as different ages. The devastating effect of depression

1:10. during adolescence is also reflected in the fact that the

incidence of a depressive episode during that stage of beliefs that lead to depression which include: Demand

development is predictive of recurrent depressive for Approval, High Self Expectations, Blame

episodes later in adolescence or adult life (Harrington, Proneness, Frustration Reaction, Emotional

Fudge, Rutter, Pickles, & Hill, 1990; Kovacs et al., Irresponsibility. Anxious Overconcer,; Problem

1984). For example, Kandel and Davis (1986) found a Avoidance, Dependency, Helplessness for Change

symptoms. Pakistan, being a developing country has other hand, in the graduate sample three irrational

awareness about depression and its risk factors in the and High Self-Expectation were found to be predictive

normal population, so that appropriate and effective of depression. Marcotte (1996) in her study based on a

preventive measures can be undertaken. Thus the cognitive behavioral perspective, investigated the

following study was planned to find out the role of presence of different categories of irrational beliefs in

irrational beliefs in prediction of depressive relation to depressive symptoms in a sample of 349

symptoms. adolescents. Results revealed that girls demonstrated

Epictetus in the first century A.D. stated: “People higher levels of depression, while boys became less

are disturbed not by things but by the view which they depressed once they entered adolescence stage. Strong

belief system of a person often governs the attitude and (2005) in their study found that adolescent girls

approach of a person. Therefore, a clear and rational manifested higher levels of depressive symptoms as

thinking makes a person less troubled. Ellis further compared to adolescent boys. It was also found that

suggested that irrationality causes various problems boys became less depressed once they entered

and leads to various psychiatric disorders, which make adolescence age (that is between 11-14 years). Rates

focuses firmly on the presence of irrational beliefs and from pre to late adolescence. They found depression to

their devastating effects on human behavior. Irrational be related with low frustration tolerance and tendency

beliefs are defined as matters of personal significance, to dramatize situations among Canadian adolescents;

which can be stated, in absolute terms such as must, these gender differences and cognitive biases have

reciprocally influencing one another. Ellis and significant relationship between irrational beliefs and

MacLaren, (1998) defined rational as self-helping and depression. Whilst, researches by Haley, Fine,

irrational as self-defeating. Wessler and Wessler (as Marriage, Moretti, and Freeman (1985) and Marton,

cited in Bernard & Joyce, 1984) synthesized the work Churchard, and

of Beck, Ellis and Hauck, and explained that samples, also found that depressed adolescents present

depression involves the ideational components of self significantly high cognitive distortions than non-

pity, self downing, helplessness and hopelessness. depressed adolescents. In Marton et al.'s study,

Ellis and Harper (1961) outlined a number of remission of depressive episode was associated with a

measured on the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS), middle were 58.4%, with a monthly income of

but nevertheless remained higher than seen in the Rs.10,000 to 49,000 and lower were 1.4%, with a

normal adolescent group. monthly income of Rs.10,000 or less while 26.1% of

In a study exploring the developmental aspect of the participants did not mention their monthly income.

depressogenic thinking, Garber, Weiss, and Shanley In the main study a sample of 1100 students was taken,

occurred with age in cognitive distortions, suggesting Demographic information questionnaire was

that depressogenic thinking had already been constructed to get information regarding age, sex,

developed. monthly income etc.

investigated among Pakistani population. The present The Irrational Belief Test (IBT) was developed by

study aims to investigate the relationship between Jones (1969) that measures irrational beliefs in male

irrational beliefs and depressive symptoms in a non- and female adolescents. It is based on the theory of

Pakistan. It may contribute to the improvement of proposed by Ellis (1973). It consists of 100 items

mental health and psychological well being of which are equally divided into 10 groups and covers

adolescents which may facilitate their functioning 10 dimensions of irrationality: 1) Demand for

irrational beliefs and depression. strongly. Jones (1969) reported internal consistency

irrational beliefs and depression in male .80; a test retest coefficient of reliability of .92 and a

adolescents. concurrent validity coefficient of .61.

irrational beliefs

female Beck Depression InventoryII (BDI-II)

21 items and used to measure levels of depression.

Method Each item is scored on a 4-point scale i.e. from

Sample minimal depression (1) to severe depression (4). The

institutions was the language of measuring validity between BDI-II and Beck Anxiety Scale is .60

instruments being used, i.e. English. The age range of (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996).

the sample was between 13 to 19 years (M= 16.09;

SD= 1.75). All the participants belonged to three Procedure

different socio-economic classes: Upper class 14.1%,

with a monthly income of Rs.50,000 and above; A pilot study was conducted on 50 students:

separately on 25 females and 25 males with an age To determine the relationship between irrational

range of 13 to 16 years (M = 14 years) from two beliefs and depressive symptoms, Pearson Product

English medium and bilingual schools of Lahore in Moment Correlation Coefficient and Multiple

two sittings. Institutional consent was taken from the Regression Analyses were carried out for the total

authorities for students to participate in the study and sample and for male and female separately.

the purpose of the study was explained to the Table 1 shows means and standard deviation on all

participants. The aim of the pilot study was to find out scales of IBT for male and female samples.

which was not significantly related to depression.

computed for each scale and for each sub-scale for the results revealed significant relationship between nine

total sample of 1000 male and female adolescents subscales of IBT and depression among adolescents.

byUsing Statistical Package for Social Sciences Results are presented in Table 2.

3) and for males and females (see table 4 and 5) Regression Analysis for male adolescents (N=447).

Note: R2=.30, ∆R2=.30, B= unstandardized coefficient, SE B=

coefficient beta, ** = p < 0.01. Discussion

on IBT showed an overall significance in the support for the relationship between irrational beliefs

prediction of depressive symptoms on BDI-II, which and depressive symptoms in male as well as female

accounted for 30% of the total variance. Although adolescents of Lahore, Pakistan.

symptoms in females (see Table 5) which accounted conducted by Burnett (1995) and Oei, Etchells and

for 31% of the total variance. Whereas, among males Free (1994) in Australia and by Erickson, Horan and

four subscales of IBT i.e. Frustration Reaction; Hackett (1991) and Marcotte (1996) in the US who

Emotional Irresponsibility; Anxious Overconcern and found a relationship between both High Self

Problem Avoidance were found to be significant. Expectation and Problem Avoidance with depressive

RAHMAN AND AHMED

Moreover, these differences may be due to the practice

Regression Analysis for Female Adolescents

Score

families give preference to the male child in certain

predictor of depressive symptoms both in males and

by Marcotte (1996), Oei et al. (1994) in Australia and

Calvete and Cardenoso (2005) in Canada supported

the above findings. It may be defined in the context of

transition in adolescence as the adolescent undergoes

many physiological and psychological changes. These

hormonal and emotional changes are manifested in an

adolescent's unstable mood and exaggerated reactions

to the environmental events that increase frustration

for Change, P = Perfectionism. Note: R2 = .31, ∆R2 = .30, B =

unstandardized coefficient, β = standardized coefficient beta, adolescents. However, most of these IBs did not

** = p < 0.01, * = p < 0.05. predict depressive symptoms when male and female

symptoms among both male and female adolescents.

This relationship according to these researches may be

defined as a by product of lack of maturity usually

found in the adolescent age. Adolescence is

considered as a transitory phase, which, Erickson (as

depressive symptoms among male adolescents. On the

contrary, strong relationship was found between High

Self Expectation and depressive symptoms among

female adolescents. This may also be due to the socio-

cultural differences as in Asian culture expectation of

parents and family is related to children in different

spheres of life whereas, females being more emotional

and sensitive may tend to hold the irrational belief of

High Self Expectation that may lead to depression.

scores were combined. There are seven sub-scales of

(1991), Oei et al. (1994), Burnett (1995) and Marcotte

(1996) found strong relationship between these

subscales and depressive symptoms among

adolescents in the US and Australia. These differences

may be due to the socio-cultural factors as in Pakistan,

extended family system is practiced. The practicing

rule in the extended families include that children are

not given the opportunity to make decisions on their

own but are directed to do things by the elders. In the

East collectivism is more prevalent, which can also be

Conclusion In future, similar research needs to be conducted

on a more representative and proportionate sample

the theory as Ellis purports that irrational beliefs are present study were available in English language only,

should be practiced. Educational institutions may also

proportion for a balanced and better representation. References

Furthermore, a bilingual sample was taken, with

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Nielson, D. M., Horan, J. J., Keen, B., Peter, C. C., Rahman, N. K. (2004). Psychology in Pakistan. In M.

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